Indigenization and Contextualization

Introduction

This study aims to explore the process of indigenization and contextualization among Russian-speaking believers in Central Asia and Israel. Context is “surrounding conditions – the circumstances or events that form the environment within which something exists or takes place,”¹ but “indigenizing” refers to increasing local participation in tasks previously performed by outsiders.² Indigenous people can collaborate with former colonialists to revive their suppressed ideas and practices.³ The cooperation presupposes the process of reconciliation and decolonization⁴ in that the dynamics of symbiosis is indispensable.

With these definitions in mind, I will first examine how the religious context and political history of Central Asia and Israel shape the presuppositions missionaries must consider. And then, I will explore how the social positioning and practices⁵ of Russian-speaking believers reveal missional landscapes. Why are those believers significant? What commonalities exist between these distinctive worlds?⁶ What might a divine plan look like for Russian-speaking peoples in these two regions?

Religious Context of the Russian
Speakers in Two Regions

Central Asia is home to five main ethnic groups (Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, Turkmens, and Tajiks), primarily Turkic-speaking, with nomadic traditions among the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz.⁷ Historically, this region was a crossroads of religious influence: Iranian Zoroastrianism, Indian Buddhism, and aboriginal Tengrism before Islam spread in the 8th century. Although Nestorian Christianity emerged during Mongol rule in the 13th and 14th centuries, Sunni Islam remained dominant until the late 19^th century.⁸

As the Russian Empire expanded southward in the late 18^th century, Central Asians were gradually exposed to Orthodox Christianity. The formation of the Soviet Union in 1922 transformed indigenous Islamic culture into an atheistic communist society.⁹ Although the socialist regime initially encouraged the creation of a peaceful paradise, it ultimately disillusioned local ethnicities, culminating in its collapse in 1991.

During the transitional period (1987-1995), Central Asians sought to fill the spiritual void left by the regime, restoring traditional Islam in reaction to the influx of foreign religious organizations. While foreign religious organizations sent their workers into Central Asia and reached out to the nationals, local Muslims viewed these foreigners as cultural colonialists.¹⁰

In the past decade, however, external religious influence has waned, and local governments recognize only registered religious organizations. In Kazakhstan, for instance, Muslims comprise 69.3% of the population, Russian Orthodox believers make up17%, and evangelical Christians account for just 0.2%.¹¹ Other Central Asian countries reflect similar demographics, with Muslims as the majority.¹²

The region of Palestine has been home to local Muslim Arabs for over a millennium, beginning with the Islamic expansion in the 7^th century until now. Under Ottoman Empire (1517-1917), Islam became the official religion.¹³ However, the political upheavals of the 20^th century drastically altered the local demography that entailed a switched political and religious landscape.¹⁴ Today, Israel’s religious composition is predominantly Jewish (73.5%), followed by Muslim (18.1%), Christian (1.9%), Druze (1.6%), and other (4.9%, 2022 estimate).¹⁵

Within this framework, individual identities often blur in favor of national collectivity,¹⁶ which tends to overlook non-Jewish minorities. Russian speakers in Israel encounter multi-layered Jewish society, including Ultra-orthodox (haredim), national religious orthodox (dati-leumi), traditional orthodox (Masorti), and secular (heloni) communities. Russian-speaking believers often face restrictions in expressing their faith and securing places of worship.¹⁷

Political History of the Russian Speakers’
Permeation into the Islamic and Jewish Worlds

First, the spread of ethnic Russians into Central Asia began in the 18th and 19th centuries, during a period of vigorous colonization by the Russian Empire and Western powers amid a political vacuum among indigenous peoples.¹⁸ By the early 20th century, the Russian Empire had established control over Central Asia, with ethnic Russian military personnel, administrators, merchants, and farmers settling in the region and influencing its political, economic, and social landscape. V. V. Bartold estimates they constituted about 12.5 % of the population.¹⁹ The tribal and nomadic lifestyle of ethnic groups made it difficult for them to confront colonial powers.

In the 1930s, Stalin forced relocation of ethnic and non-ethnic Russians to develop agriculture and industry in Central Asia.²⁰ Before and after WWII, he deported Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars, and Chechen-Ingush to Siberia or Central Asia.²¹ To maintain control, the communist party assigned Russian nationals to lead administrative positions in the region. It is estimated that, by the 1970-80s, the number of ethnic Russians in Kazakhstan nearly matched that of indigenous Kazakhs.²²

During the social upheavals of the 1990s, however, Russian-speaking individuals rapidly repatriated to their home countries,²³ due to various reasons.²⁴ Five Central Asian countries experienced serious population decline.²⁵ Today, Russian speakers account for 16.8% of Kazakhstan’s population, totaling 3,403,681out of 20,260,006.²⁶

Second, the migration of Russian-speaking Jews to Israel had several waves: first Aliyah (“immigration”/Going up to Jerusalem) – about 25,000 immigrants (1882-1903); second Aliyah – about 40,000 immigrants (1904-1914).²⁷ After the Romanov dynasty fell, many Jews actively joined the socialistic movement of the Bolsheviks, but about 35,000 immigrants made the third Aliyah to Palestine (1919-1923).²⁸ During WWII, Soviet Jews fought against Nazi Germany, and after the war, the USSR provided a substantial support for Jewish people to establish the State of Israel, perhaps intending to create communist ally in the Middle East. However, Israel gradually took a different political route – Zionistic and democratic. In 1967, Israel won Six-Day war which entailed another immigration: approximately 220,000 Russian-speaking Jews left for Israel during the 70s.²⁹

By the 1990s, amid political and economic crisis and rising ethnic nationalism, Russian Jews began emigrating to other Western countries, along with almost a million immigrants to Israel. This influx significantly altered Israel’s demographics. Following the outbreak of war between Ukraine and Russia, tens of thousands of Russian and Ukrainian Jews also moved to Israel. Today, Russian speakers, one of the largest immigrant groups, roughly represent 15% (1,500,000) of Israel’s population of 10 million.³⁰

Social Positioning and Activities of the Russian Speakers
in the Two Cultures

What is the social position of 3.4 million Slavic people in Kazakhstan? Over generations, they have been positioned there, becoming fully assimilated and acculturated.³¹ To the local ethnics, they are identified as Russian Orthodox, with icons depicting Jesus as a Russian God. In areas where ethnic Russians live, Central Asians recognize that they form sub-cultural enclaves that contain Slavic customs, traditions, and aspirations. Ethnic Russians either love to remain with their ascribed privileges (European history, Slavic culture, and rich traditions) or strive to achieve new positions in wider social matrix of Central Asia.³²

How are 1.5 million Russian speakers contextualizing themselves in Israel? There are two social layers – Jewish and Israeli. The first two generations prior to 1991 have leaned toward Jewishness. Jewish society has been hospitable for those who had ethnic kinship, but simultaneously hostile for those without Jewish roots. As the second generation Russian-speaking soldiers enter the Israeli army, for instance, they often undergo conversion processes to attain Jewish status. According to Anita Shapira, the first generation Russian-speaking immigrants after the fall of Soviet Union are, however, exposed to “a divided society . . . between religious and nonreligious, . . . left and right,”³³ which is less collectivistic. In fact, those Russian speakers who experienced the totalitarian ideology in Soviet Union become secular and multicultural.³⁴ It is thus feasible for them either to preserve their ascribed Russian status or to navigate their achievable positionings in Israeli society.

Missional Living of Russian-Speaking
Believers as Minority Movement

In the Republic of Kazakhstan, there are 301 Russian-speaking Orthodox churches.³⁵ While I do not know the total number of their membership, it is well known that the Russian Orthodox is supportive to local government and officially recognized by it. Apart from orthodox churches which are liturgical, there are evangelistic Russian-speaking churches. Evangelical Russian Baptist membership in Kazakhstan, for example, stands at 9187 across 256 churches (2023),³⁶ being a minority group among 3,403,681 Russian-speaking citizens (0.27%) and among19.9 million total population (0.046%).

In Israel, there are 280 Messianic congregations.³⁷ Russian-speaking churches are, whether they want to be called or not, categorized as part of Messianic churches. Russian-speaking believers make up around 7447 across 136 congregations, being a minority compared to 1,500,000 Israeli Russian speakers (0.49%) and to 10 million total Israeli population (0.074%).

How then do Evangelical Russian Baptists carry out their missions? The overall ministry spectrum of the so-called Evangelical Christian Baptist Unions³⁸ reflects the transition of ethnic Germans to a Russian majority. In 1992 when the Union of ECB of Kazakhstan was formed, however, it collaborated with four other Central Asian Baptist Unions, organizing annual conferences for pastors, evangelists, and teachers. Under the umbrella of Union, there are regional associations and autonomous local churches that primarily focus their ministry on Slavic people. Yet educational institutions, emphasizing the importance of contextualized ministry, provide appropriate trainings for future leaders.

What are the missional activities of Russian-speaking believers in Israel? Their ministry lacks systematic organization due to the absence of a unified denominational structure.³⁹ Nevertheless, various pseudo-denominations have emerged among Russian-speaking churches, including Pentecostal, Living Israel, and “baptistic” fellowships, which aim to reach Russian immigrants and socially marginalized peoples. Many churches often adopt charismatic worship styles to attract individuals seeking spiritual support. Baptistic churches emphasize expository preaching, relational evangelism and discipleship. Particularly, Baptist-minded leaders accentuate theological education for the existing and potential church leaders, aiming at church multiplication all over Israel.

Indigenization and Contextualization

Missiological Necessity for Ethnic Russians in Central Asia. During the colonial and communist periods (1860s-1991), ethnic Russians invaded, controlled, and transformed the Central Asian region. They extracted and exploited its natural resources while asserting dominance over the native peoples. Although their presence contributed to the modernization of indigenous communities⁴⁰ and the industrialization of the region,⁴¹ their colonial and totalitarian practices⁴² also triggered widespread discontent, leading to rebellion and migration among the ethnic groups. So, with historical grievance against ethnic Russians, the five Republics of Central Asia undertook under indigenous sovereignty the process of ethnicization in every area of life (politics, public service, education, culture) as a way of retribution.⁴³ These phenomena are the signs of decolonization which cannot be completely pursued without the process of reconciliation.

Who can then take an initiative in the process of reconciliation between Russian-speakers and Central Asians? Evangelical Russian Baptists can take that issue into serious consideration because they are representatives of ethnic Russians.⁴⁴ Ethnic Russians might ask themselves: “Were our parents forced to relocate to Central Asia as political victims, or did they volunteer to the region? Did they contribute to oppression under communist ideology? ⁴⁵ If Central Asians harbor grievances against us, can we create a safe space for them to share their trauma? How can we help reduce unresolved biases, contempt and discrimination toward one another?” By addressing these questions, Evangelical Russian Baptists can pursue reconciliation both individually and institutionally.⁴⁶

Was there any example of indigenizing partnership in Central Asia? During and after Perestroika,⁴⁷ when Russian Bibles were scarce, foreign mission organizations⁴⁸ produced illustrated children’s Bibles, leading many Russian speakers to faith. These organizations also supported linguistic contextualization efforts in the region’s Bible translation projects.⁴⁹ A “Biblica” project with a group from GCC and International Mission Board with ethnic editors produced indigenized scripture for Russian-speaking Central Asians familiar with Islamic culture.⁵⁰

How can then Evangelical Russian Baptist churches be vital partners in the process of indigenization? The first strategic approach is planting churches targeting Russian speakers in urban and small-town areas of Central Asia⁵¹ The second approach is to reach native Asians. Russian-speaking believers have established “House of Prayer” (Dom Molitviy) churches, which attract Central Asians and enable them to hold native worship services within these host Russian churches. God raises up visionaries from Russian Baptist churches to engage in cross-cultural ministry. Russian Baptist churches sometimes collaborate with indigenous church leaders to help them minister to their own communities. Fortunately, some Protestant churches actively engage multiethnic communities, including younger generations,⁵² while Orthodox churches primarily attract ethnic Russians.

Outreach to Central Asians in small towns and villages requires a different approach, as they often preserve pagan practices and Islamic folk traditions, resisting outside influences.⁵³ Ethnic Russian believers can humbly facilitate dialogues that encourage indigenous people to raise probing questions about their religious tradition and reorient it into correct worldview and ethos.⁵⁴ After attending a course on Messianism, my Russian students learned how to ask thoughtful questions to local Central Asians. They would say, “The Quran gives Jesus the title ‘Isa Masiah,’ right? But what does ‘Masiah’ really mean?” Later, one shared, “I used to be afraid to share the gospel with Muslims. Now I can confidently explain how Jesus is the Savior, not just a prophet, by using this very title from the Quran.” Ethnic Russians, with their language barriers,⁵⁵ are unlikely to effectively reach sedentary and nomadic dwellers in remote areas. Instead, Central Asian ethnic believers, supported by Russian Baptist churches, can engage these communities through “translatable” methods like storytelling, poetry, proverbs, and music.⁵⁶

Missiological Challenge for Russian-Speaking Believers in Israel. As indicated in III-A, contextualization poses challenges for Russian-speaking believers in Israel. To succeed in assimilation, Russian speakers establish subcultural communities within the broader Israeli society.⁵⁷ Like various ethnic synagogues, churches can serve as primary platforms for new immigrants to adapt to their new environment and achieve social positions. At a micro level, the Russian-speaking church can foster social dynamics through the active participation of its members, each entrusted with specific rights and responsibilities.⁵⁸ Theologically, the church as the body of Christ is not at society’s periphery but rather at its central core, as illustrated in Paul’s Letter to the Ephesians (1:20-23; 3:10). To reach out to Russian speakers, like-minded church leaders emphasize the formation and maturity of local faith communities. Encouragingly, in major cities, there are church-planting candidates and practitioners aged 40 to 50 actively engaged in this business.⁵⁹ These individuals play key roles in fostering formative faith communities.

In a welcoming local church, the dependent and vulnerable individuals become a meaningful agent in which various social patterns arise: Reflection on life in the Former Soviet Union, new look at gospel truths within their cultural context, and navigating complex issues like interracial wars, religious nationalism, and messianic Judaism. For instance, many Israeli believers tend to overlook 2,000 years of Christian history under God’s providence, emphasizing Midrashic over doctrinal interpretation of the scripture. As this tension reflects the imbalance between Scripture’s universal truths and cultural distinctions,⁶⁰ my Russian-speaking national partner’s statement should not be underestimated: “The 95% of Gospel content is far more important than the 5-10% of cultural aspects.” Believers from the Former Soviet Union, exposed to Orthodox and Protestant traditions, naturally connect with global evangelical Christians, as seen with Alexander Men. As an orthodox priest, Men had been freely associated with Protestant believers. Repatriated Russian-speaking believers are also receptive to Christian theology, including Jesus’ divinity and the Trinity. Their openness to Western Judeo-Christian civilization⁶¹ is vital to the growth and maturity of evangelical communities in Israel.

First-generation Russian-speaking believers are focused on establishing themselves in a new context, so outreach beyond their community is not their immediate priority. Having come from the Former Soviet Union and trained within Baptist traditions, including IMB, they are likely to see their 2nd and 3rd generations to reach Former Soviet Union Russian speakers with the gospel.⁶²

Conclusion

Why should we seriously consider Russian speakers as potential people group in these two challenging worlds? First, geographical and demographical reasons rooted in geopolitical events highlight their significance. Just as European believers have reached out to Africans and North American Christians to South Americans, Russian speakers – long integrated into Central Asia and immigrated to Israel – can impact the two monotheistic-religious worlds of the south. The presence of Russian-speaking believers, within the framework of divine sovereignty, is a unique and fundamental aspect of social reality that cannot be reversable.

Second, the religious implications are profound. Russian-speaking believers, especially Baptists, embody a blend of Russian Orthodox and Protestant evangelical traditions. Their influence extends into the monolithic Islamic world alongside Central Asian believers, while those in Israel engage actively in church planting as explicit and implicit norms. This positioning, unconsciously competing and breaking any cultural hegemony, suggests that these minority groups are well equipped to fulfill the missio Dei in their contexts.

Finally, ethnic Russians, including Russian Jews, are patient and resilient, akin to farmers waiting for the right season to cultivate the soil. Russian literature often uses land as a symbol of the Russian spirit. Leo Tolstoy notes, “Spring is the time for making plans and resolutions, and Levin, like a tree which in the spring-time does not yet know in which direction and what manner its young shoots and twigs . . . will develop, did not quite know what work on his beloved land he was going to take in hand, but he felt that his mind was full of the finest plans and resolutions”⁶³ These analyses strengthen our conviction as expatriates that the sovereign God is using His called ones in Central Asia and Israel as the disciples of the Messiah.